Many who cherish the Scriptures and wish to deepen their understanding of the Word often find themselves frustrated. The overwhelming number of Bible translations available today and conflicting doctrinal positions taken by various denominations add to the frustration. As a result, much of what God wants to communicate to His children is often lost in translation.

Bible translation efforts have been going on for over 2,500 years. The herculean task of making the Bible available in many languages naturally complicates things. Textual criticism, or the art of restoring ancient writings to their original form is just one of the challenges that translators faced during this time.

Writing for Encyclopedia Britannica, Edward John Kenney¹ explains how this process can get rather complicated:

Textual criticism, properly speaking, is an ancillary academic discipline designed to lay the foundations for the so-called higher criticism, which deals with questions of authenticity and attribution, of interpretation, and of literary and historical evaluation … The methods of textual criticism, insofar as they are not codified common sense, are the methods of historical inquiry. Texts have been transmitted in an almost limitless variety of ways, and the criteria employed by the textual critic—technical, philological, literary, or aesthetic—are valid only if applied in awareness of the particular set of historical circumstances governing each case.

As mentioned in Part 1 of this article, other challenges faced by translators and readers alike include language nuances, word choice, contextual considerations, cultural differences, theological bias, and transliteration issues.

Transliteration Issues

When words are transliterated, or converted letter-by-letter from one script to another, the original meaning may not be conveyed at all, especially with names or specific terms. As they navigate these challenges, translators attempt to create versions that are both accurate and accessible to their audiences. Here is a list of the many challenges they face:

1. Phonetic Differences: Different languages have unique sounds that may not have direct equivalents in others. Translators must decide how to represent these sounds accurately, which can lead to variations in spelling and pronunciation.
2. Cultural Context: Certain words or names may carry specific cultural meanings that are difficult to convey in another language. Translators must consider the cultural significance and find ways to express it appropriately.
3. Consistency: Maintaining consistency in transliteration across various texts and contexts can be challenging, especially when dealing with proper names or terms that appear in different parts of the Bible.
4. Historical Variations: The historical context of the original language can affect transliteration. Some names may have been transliterated in various ways over time, leading to confusion about which version to use.
5. Audience Understanding: Translators must consider the familiarity of their audience with certain terms. A transliteration that works well in one cultural context may not be understood in another.
6. Theological Implications: Certain transliterations may carry theological weight or implications that can influence interpretation. Translators need to be mindful of how their choices may affect the understanding of key concepts.
7. Technical Limitations: Some languages may lack the necessary characters or symbols to accurately represent certain sounds, requiring creative solutions that may not fully capture the original pronunciation.

Hebrew and English differ significantly in how they convey meaning, particularly in terms of precision and nuance. Here are some key points highlighting these differences that add to the list of challenges:

Root System

Hebrew is built on a root system, where most words derive from three-consonant roots. This structure allows for a rich interconnection between words and concepts. For example, the root “k-t-v” (or “katav”) relates to writing, but words derived from it can mean to write, letter, or scripture — each having its particular nuance. English on the other hand, often relies on prefixes and suffixes, which can dilute the direct connection between words.

Contextual Meaning

Hebrew words often have multiple meanings that depend heavily on context. A single Hebrew word can convey various shades of meaning that may require several English words to express fully. For example, the Hebrew word shalom can mean peace, completeness, or welfare, depending on how it is used.

Verb Forms

Hebrew verbs convey tense and aspect differently than English. The Hebrew verb system includes aspects that indicate the nature of the action (completed, ongoing, habitual), which can be more precise than past, present, and future tenses in English.

Gender and Number

Hebrew nouns and adjectives are gendered and can vary in form based on number (singular or plural), which can provide additional layers of meaning. English nouns are generally gender-neutral, and while it has plural forms, it lacks the same level of grammatical gender distinction.

In Hebrew, the word “Elohim” (אֱלֹהִים) is a fascinating example of how nouns can be gendered and vary in form. “Elohim” is a plural masculine noun that can mean God, gods, judges, or angels.

According to the Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament:

This word,³ which is generally viewed as the plural of eloah, is found far more frequently in Scripture than either ‘el or eloah for the true God. This is seen in the fact that the noun elohim is consistently used with singular verb forms and with adjectives and pronouns in the singular.

Cultural Nuances

Many Hebrew words carry cultural or theological significance that may not have direct equivalents in English. For instance, the word “mitzvah” refers not just to a commandment but carries connotations of duty and ethical behavior that might require a more elaborate explanation in English.

Idiomatic Expressions

Hebrew has idiomatic phrases that may not translate well into English. Understanding this requires not just a translation of words but an understanding of cultural context and connotation.

Overall, while English is a versatile language, it often lacks the precision and depth found in Hebrew, especially when it comes to conveying complex ideas or emotions. This is why many translators and scholars emphasize the importance of understanding the original Hebrew text when interpreting biblical passages.

Hebrew Names Matter

As was mentioned earlier, some words or names may hold deeper cultural meanings that get obscured or lost when transliterated. Glaring examples of this can be seen in the transliterated name given to Adam’s spouse and the use of substitutions of LORD for YHWH’s name.

All About Eve

The name Eve comes from the Hebrew word Chavah, which is derived from the root chayah (חיה), meaning “to live” or “to give life.” In the Book of Genesis, she is named by Adam, who declares, “She shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man” (Genesis 2:23), and later, she is referred to as “Eve” in Genesis 3:20, where it says, “Adam named his wife Eve because she would become the mother of all the living.” But the the first man Adam really name her Eve?

The transliteration of “Chavah” to “Eve” in modern Bible translations reflects the tradition of using the Anglicized version of names for easier reading and understanding. This practice is common in many translations.  The intention was to make the text more accessible to English-speaking audiences. While “Eve” is not a Hebrew name in the original sense, unfortunately it has become the accepted English equivalent in biblical contexts. So much is lost in transliteration.

Keep this in mind as you search the Scriptures:

In ancient Hebrew culture, names played a crucial role in shaping a person’s identity and defining the purpose of objects. The names assigned often carried prophetic significance. In Genesis (Bereishit), we see that YHWH brought the world into existence through His spoken words.⁴ These divine declarations not only initiated creation but also established its intended purpose. Therefore, things are truly defined by their names; their essence is tied to what they are called.

The names of YHWH (יהוה) and His Son Yeshua (ישוע)

Yeshua often criticized the religious leaders of his time for prioritizing human traditions over the commandments of Yah. His teachings emphasized the need for genuine faith and adherence to his Father’s commandments rather than mere ritualistic observance. In this light, traditions should not overshadow the core principles and teachings found in Scripture.The Word is clear, we are not to bring the name of YHWH ( יהוה) to nothing.

You do not bring (or lift up, or take)⁵ the Name of YHWH your Elohim to naught, for YHWH does not leave the one unpunished who brings His Name to naught. 

Exodus 20:7 The Scriptures 2009

Yet, time and time again, most translations substitute LORD for YHWH’s name and Lord for Yeshua.  The distinction between LORD and Lord in Scripture primarily relates to how the names of Elohim are represented in English translations of the Bible, reflecting different Hebrew terms.

1. LORD (all capital letters) represents the Tetragrammaton, YHWH (יהוה), which is the personal name of El Most High in the Hebrew Bible. It is the specific covenant name of YHWH, and is often associated with His promises and covenant with His people.

2. Lord (capital ‘L’ and lowercase ‘ord’): This typically translates the Hebrew word “אדון” (Adon), which means “lord” or “master.” It can refer to human lords or masters as well as to God in a more general sense. In the New Testament, “Lord” is often used to refer to Yeshua, acknowledging His authority.

3. the Lord: This phrase can refer to either YHWH or to Yeshua, depending on the context. In the Old Testament, it usually refers to YHWH when “LORD” is used, while in the New Testament, it typically refers to Yeshua as “the Lord.”

Understanding these distinctions helps us grasp the theological implications and the relational aspects of how translators have subverted the names of YHWH and His Son in modern translations.

Alert! The term "LORD" can also refer to Baal in certain contexts, particularly in the Hebrew Bible. The word "Baal" (בעל) means "lord" or "master" in Hebrew and was used as a title for various Canaanite deities, including the storm god Baal, who was worshiped by some ancient peoples in the region.

Then there is the issue of the transliteration of specific names: Jesus instead of Yeshua. How did this happen?

The name “Jesus” is derived from the Hebrew name “Yeshua” (ישוע), which itself is a shortened form of  “Yehoshua” (יהושע), meaning “Yahuah is salvation.” The transition from “Yeshua” to “Jesus” involves several linguistic changes through different languages over time.

Hebrew to Aramaic: “Yeshua” was commonly used in the Hebrew and Aramaic-speaking communities during the time of Jesus. Aramaic was the language spoken by many Jews in Judea during the first century.

Aramaic to Greek: The New Testament was written in Greek, and the name “Yeshua” was rendered as “Iesous” (Ἰησοῦς) in Greek. This transliteration was necessary because Greek does not have the “sh” sound found in “Yeshua.”

Greek to Latin: From Greek, “Iesous” was adopted into Latin as “Iesus.” The Latin language became the official language of the Roman Empire and influenced many Western languages.

Latin to English: The name “Iesus” eventually made its way into Old English and evolved into “Jesus” as we know it today. The letter “J” was introduced into the English alphabet later, which is why “Jesus” instead of “Iesus”is used in most translations of the Bible. However, the letter “J” was not added to the alphabet until 1524.

In his book Come Out of Her My People, C.J. Koster traces the “non-original, substitute name Jesus” to Sun worship:

There is not a single authoritative reference source which gives the name Jesus or Iesous as the original name of our Savior! All of them admit that the original form of the Name was Jehoshua or Yehoshua. Why then, was it changed from Jehoshua or Yehoshua to Jesus? […] Two factors contributed greatly to the substitution and distortion of our Saviour’s Name. The first was the un-Scriptural superstitious teaching of the Jews that the Father’s Name is not to be uttered, that it is ineffable, that others will profane it when they use it, and that the Name must be “disguised” outside of the temple of Jerusalem.⁶ Because of the Father’s Name being in His Son’s Name, this same disastrous suppression of the Name resulted in them (? the Greeks) giving a Hellenized, in fact a surrogate name for our Saviour. He did warn us in John 5:43, “I have come in My Father’s Name…if another comes in his own name, him you will receive.”

Koster also attributes our Savior’s name change to an anti-Judaism sentiment that prevailed amongst the Gentiles (nations). He claims that they wanted a savior, just not a Jewish one.

Koster claims:

The Hellenized theological school at Alexandria, led by the syncretizing, allegorizing, philosophizing, Gnostic-indoctrinated Clement and Origen, was the place where everything started to become distorted and adapted to suit the nations. The Messianic Belief, and its Saviour, had to become Hellenized to be acceptable to the Gentiles.

Although attempts have been made to justify the translation of the father’s Name and His Son’s Name, the fact is a personal name can’t be translated. Every person’s name remains the same in any language.⁷

A Quick Look at the Septuagint and Masoretic Translations

The Talmud and Midrash have greatly impacted Masoretic translations of the Scriptures.

The Talmud and Midrash are important to Rabbinic Judaism and serve different purposes with distinct characteristics. The Talmud consists of the Mishnah (compilation of oral laws) and the Gemara (commentary and discussions on the Mishnah).

Midrash refers to a genre of rabbinic literature that provides commentary on the Hebrew Scriptures (Tanakh). It includes various forms of interpretation, including narrative expansions, allegorical readings, and moral teachings. Both the Talmud and Midrash have significantly influenced the Masoretic (MT) of the Hebrew Bible, shaping both its interpretation and transmission.

The Masoretes were Jewish scribes and scholars who played a role in the copying, preservation, and transmission of the Hebrew Scriptures from the 6th to the 10th centuries CE. They were primarily active in the regions of Israel and Babylon and were responsible for developing the Masoretic System of vocalization (adding vowel points) and cantillation marks to Hebrew script.⁸

Many Masoretes came from families with a long tradition of scholarship and scribal work. This lineage often played a role in their selection, as they were seen as custodians of the text. They underwent extensive training in the study of the Hebrew Scriptures, grammar, and the various traditions associated with the texts.

By the time the Masoretes were active, there was a growing call for a standardized version of the Hebrew Scriptures, especially as Jewish communities spread across different regions. This context likely influenced the selection of Masoretes who could contribute to this effort.

The Masoretic Text was developed over several centuries, but the final standardized version is generally dated around the 10th century CE. The most famous manuscript of the MT is the Leningrad Codex, which dates to 1008 CE.

Greek Septuagint Translations

The term “Septuagint” generally refers to the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures that was produced for the Jewish community in Egypt, particularly in Alexandria. The Septuagint (LXX) is believed to have originated in the 3rd century BCE. This translation was initiated during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (283–246 BCE), who sought to gather a comprehensive library, including Jewish texts.

This translation began with the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, which was completed around the 3rd century BCE. It laid the groundwork for the subsequent translation of other books of the Hebrew Scriptures.

Over the following centuries, additional books were translated into Greek, resulting in a collection that included historical, poetic, and prophetic texts. By the 2nd century BCE, much of the Old Testament had been translated into Greek.

The Septuagint is known to have multiple textual traditions, as various Jewish communities may have produced their own translations or adaptations of the Hebrew texts. This resulted in variations in wording and content.

While the earliest complete manuscripts of the Septuagint date from the 4th century CE, the translation itself began in the 3rd century BCE, making it one of the oldest known translations of the Hebrew Scriptures.

The most authoritative version of the Septuagint (LXX) is generally considered to be the Codex Vaticanus, which dates to the early 4th century CE (approximately around 300-325 CE). The Codex Vaticanus is one of the oldest and most complete manuscripts of the Greek Bible, containing both the Old and New Testaments, and it is housed in the Vatican Library.

Another significant manuscript is the Codex Sinaiticus, which also dates to the 4th century CE and is considered one of the earliest complete manuscripts of the Christian Bible, including the Septuagint. The Codex Sinaiticus is currently held in the British Library. Both of these manuscripts are widely used for textual criticism of the Septuagint.

Alert! There are many differences between the two manuscripts. For example, some saythat Codex Vaticanus is a better manuscript for some parts of the New Testament, while Codex Sinaiticus is better for others. Others say that it is easier to find two consecutive verses in which the two manuscripts differ than two consecutive verses in which they agree.

Final Thoughts

It is evident that us believers in search of Truth face many challenges in “rightly dividing” Yahuah’s Word as we navigate the narrow path of discipleship. Hopefully this information was presented in a way that inspires you to use all the research tools available to help you discover Truth. Trust in the Ruach’s ability to guide you and keep you from error.

Question everything and everyone. But most of all trust the process that Yah has ordained for your individual spiritual journey. Have faith that Yah’s Ruach will help you will reach the finish line and inherit the Kingdom prepared before the foundation of the world. Shalom.

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FOOTNOTES

¹ Kennedy Professor Emeritus of Latin, University of Cambridge. author of The Classical Text; Lucretius; and others.

² “Texts in this connection are defined as writings other than formal documents, inscribed or printed on paper, parchment, papyrus, or similar materials.” Kenney, Edward John. “textual criticism”. Citation: Encyclopedia Britannica, 15 Mar. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/topic/textual-criticism. Accessed 12 November 2024.

³ Elohim (H430). Harris, R. Laird, Gleason L. Archer, Jr., and Bruce K. Waltke. Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. The Moody Bible Institute of Chicago, 1980, p. 93.

⁴ Genesis 1:3. The word for light is or (Strong’s H216) and means illumination or (concretely) luminary: -bright, clear, +day, light(-ning), morning, sun.

⁵ Strong’s G2983 lambano: to take in very many applications, literally and figuratively [probably objective or active, to get hold of;] H5375 nasah: to lift, in a great variety of applications, literally and figuratively, absolutely and relatively:

⁶ Arnold, The Divine Name in Exodus 3:14, J.B.L., vol.24 (1905), p.144

⁷ In Mandarin Chinese, the name “Chao” (超) typically means “surpass” or “exceed.” In English, “Chao” can be misinterpreted as “chaos,” which has a completely different meaning related to disorder or confusion. This can lead to misunderstandings about the person or their cultural background.

⁸ The original Hebrew script was written without vowels. Nikkud refers to a system of punctuation marks, or diacritical signs, used in Hebrew to indicate vowels and distinguish between different pronunciations of letters. These marks are often placed above or below Hebrew consonant symbols.